A Practical Guide to Seismic Reservoir Characterization

Acknowledgements
Contents
Acronyms
List of Figures
1 Introduction
	1.1 The General Workflow for Seismic Reservoir Characterization
	References
2 The Seismic Method
	2.1 Basics of Wavefield Propagation
		2.1.1 Stress and Strain
		2.1.2 Elastic Moduli
		2.1.3 Types of Waves
		2.1.4 Seismic Waves and Rays
		2.1.5 Geometry of Reflected Rays
	2.2 Fundamentals of the Seismic Survey
		2.2.1 Geophysical Survey Signal
		2.2.2 What Does the Event on a Seismogram Represent?
		2.2.3 Relationship Between Particle Movement and Sine Wave
		2.2.4 The Fourier Transform
		2.2.5 Sampling
		2.2.6 Seismic Resolution
	References
3 Seismic Acquisition Essentials
	3.1 Seismic Energy Sources
	3.2 Passive Source Survey
	3.3 Active Source Survey
	3.4 Offshore Survey
		3.4.1 Marine Sources
		3.4.2 Bubbles
		3.4.3 Multi-source Surveys
		3.4.4 Streamers and Hydrophones
		3.4.5 Broadband Seismic Data
		3.4.6 Ghost Reflections
		3.4.7 Survey Geometries
			3.4.7.1 Shot Point Interval
		3.4.8 OBN and OBC
	3.5 Onshore Sources
		3.5.1 Gravity Acceleration Sources
		3.5.2 Explosive Sources
		3.5.3 Vibration Trucks
	3.6 Onshore Receivers
		3.6.1 Geophones
		3.6.2 Digital Geophones
		3.6.3 Frequencies
	3.7 Survey Geometries
		3.7.1 Receiver Lines
		3.7.2 Source Shooting
	3.8 Seismic Survey Suitability
	References
4 Processing Essentials
	4.1 Wavelet Processing: De-Bubble, De-Ghost, Zero Phasing
		4.1.1 Far-Field Signature
		4.1.2 De-Bubble
		4.1.3 Source De-Ghost and Zero-Phase
	4.2 Noise Removal
		4.2.1 Data Sampling
		4.2.2 Filters, Transforms and Stacking
		4.2.3 Coherent Noise
		4.2.4 Linear Noise
		4.2.5 Guided Waves
		4.2.6 Ground Roll
		4.2.7 Diffractions
		4.2.8 Reverberations
		4.2.9 Incoherent Noise
	4.3 Multiples
		4.3.1 Multiples Interpretation
		4.3.2 Multiples in Migration
		4.3.3 Well-Logs
		4.3.4 Multiples and AVO
		4.3.5 Multiples Removal Techniques
		4.3.6 Interbed Multiples
	4.4 Velocity Models in Seismic Processing
		4.4.1 Well Data, Check Shots and VSPs
		4.4.2 Velocities for Migration
		4.4.3 Stacking Velocities
		4.4.4 Average Velocities
		4.4.5 Root-Mean-Square Velocities
		4.4.6 Interval Velocities
	4.5 Time-To-Depth Conversion
		4.5.1 Interpretation Considerations
		4.5.2 Data Sources
		4.5.3 Model Building Approaches
	4.6 Anisotropy
		4.6.1 Causes of Anisotropy
		4.6.2 Scale
		4.6.3 Types of Anisotropy Models
		4.6.4 Thomsen Parameters
		4.6.5 Anisotropy Implication for Interpretation
	4.7 Attenuation—Q Factor
	References
5 Seismic Well Ties and Wavelets
	5.1 Seismic-To-Well Tie
		5.1.1 Well Data Gathering and Quality Control
		5.1.2 Initial Time-Depth Calibration
		5.1.3 Well-Log Upscaling
		5.1.4 Selection of the Seismic
	5.2 Wavelet Estimation and Well Tie
		5.2.1 Analytical Wavelets
		5.2.2 Statistical Wavelet
		5.2.3 Deterministic Wavelet
		5.2.4 Wavelet Length
		5.2.5 Stretch and Squeeze
	5.3 Practical Guide to Well Ties and Wavelet Estimation
	References
6 Interpreting Seismic Amplitudes
	6.1 AVO Anomalies
		6.1.1 Seismic Interpretation and Amplitude Maps
		6.1.2 Why is Amplitude Variation Useful?
		6.1.3 What is a Seismic Amplitude Anomaly?
		6.1.4 Brief History of Bright Spot and Early Origins of AVO
		6.1.5 Why Do We Get AVO?
	6.2 AVO Classifications
		6.2.1 Class 1
		6.2.2 Class 2/2p—Bright Amplitude and Phase Reversal
		6.2.3 Class 3—Bright Spots
		6.2.4 Class 4—Soft Event Getting Less Soft
		6.2.5 AVO Specific Seismic Conditioning
	6.3 DHIs, Flat Spots and Amplitude Conformance
		6.3.1 Flat Spots
		6.3.2 Amplitude Conformance
		6.3.3 Time Versus Depth
	6.4 AVO Cross-Plot and Angle-Dependent Impedance
	6.5 Depth Trends, Compaction Trends and Overpressure Description
		6.5.1 Deposition and Diagenesis
		6.5.2 Overpressure Effect on AVO
		6.5.3 Porosity Preservation in Deeply Buried Rocks
	6.6 Practical Guide to Seismic AVO Analysis
	References
7 Predicting Subsurface Properties from Seismic Data
	7.1 Seismic Inversion
	7.2 Low-Frequency Model Building
	7.3 Deterministic Seismic Inversion
	7.4 Bayesian Linearized Seismic Inversion
	7.5 Geostatistical Seismic Inversion
		7.5.1 Trace-by-Trace Geostatistical Inversion
		7.5.2 Global Geostatistical Inversion
	7.6 A Practical Guide to Seismic Inversion
	References
8 Rock Properties Prediction
	8.1 Facies Classification Methods
	8.2 Single-Loop Inversion for Facies and Rock Properties
	8.3 A Practical Guide for Facies Prediction
	References
9 The Way Forward
	9.1 Full Waveform Inversion
		9.1.1 Acoustic FWI Background
		9.1.2 Velocity Tomography
		9.1.3 Acoustic FWI Basic Workflow
		9.1.4 Acoustic FWI Applications
		9.1.5 FWI: The Way Forward
	9.2 Handling Uncertainties
	9.3 Machine Learning and Spatial Data Analytics
	9.4 Towards Carbon Neutrality
		9.4.1 CCUS
		9.4.2 Geothermal
		9.4.3 Green Hydrogen
		9.4.4 Wind Energy
	References
Index